![]() 2.8 Contemporary, recent, and Modernist trends.2.2.2 Reform: Gluck, the attack on the Metastasian ideal, and Mozart.Operas were also performed on (and written for) radio and television. With the rise of recording technology, singers such as Enrico Caruso became known to audiences beyond the circle of opera fans. The 20th century saw many experiments with modern styles, such as atonality and serialism ( Schoenberg and Berg), Neoclassicism ( Stravinsky), and Minimalism ( Philip Glass and John Adams). During the 19th century, parallel operatic traditions emerged in central and eastern Europe, particularly in Russia and Bohemia. ![]() The popularity of opera continued through the verismo era in Italy and contemporary French opera through to Puccini and Strauss in the early 20th century. The mid-to-late 19th century was a "golden age" of opera, led and dominated by Wagner in Germany and Verdi in Italy. It also saw the advent of Grand Opera typified by the works of Meyerbeer. The first third of the 19th century saw the highpoint of the bel canto style, with Rossini, Donizetti and Bellini all creating works that are still performed today. Today the most renowned figure of late 18th century opera is Mozart, who began with opera seria but is most famous for his Italian comic operas, especially The Marriage of Figaro, Don Giovanni, and Così fan tutte, as well as The Magic Flute, a landmark in the German tradition. Opera seria was the most prestigious form of Italian opera, until Gluck reacted against its artificiality with his "reform" operas in the 1760s. However, in the 18th century, Italian opera continued to dominate most of Europe, except France, attracting foreign composers such as Handel. Opera started in Italy at the end of the 16th century (with Jacopo Peri's lost Dafne, produced in Florence around 1597) and soon spread through the rest of Europe: Schütz in Germany, Lully in France, and Purcell in England all helped to establish their national traditions in the 17th century. The performance is typically given in an opera house, accompanied by an orchestra or smaller musical ensemble. Opera incorporates many of the elements of spoken theatre, such as acting, scenery, and costumes and sometimes includes dance. Opera is part of the Western classical music tradition. The formal accademia and the informal camerata were both valuable sites of knowledge in studying the Italian culture of the academy as part of the Republic of Letters.Opera is an art form in which singers and musicians perform a dramatic work combining text (called a libretto) and musical score. Music appeared as an important aspect of the sixteenth-century humanistic endeavour. The emergence of opera as a case study allowed to start thinking about these narratives in a different way. Furthermore, the inclusion of the study and practice of music in the history of knowledge inevitably called for the reappraisal of music as part of Renaissance Humanism and of the Republic of Letters. In addition, the consideration of practical knowledge allowed for a re-evaluation of the Scientific Revolution. Historiographically, this master thesis contributed to an ongoing debate on the nature of the Scientific Revolution by highlighting the significance of rhetorical actio and accordingly, the trivium in the early modern pursuit of knowledge. Philological research, literary discussions, musical aesthetic, musical practice, experimentation with affect theory, a three-century long oral performance practice, and individual ideals proved to be important factors in the emergence of opera. ![]() Second, the connection between rhetorical actio and musical practice appeared to have a strong multidisciplinary nature. First, the locus of the Camerata Fiorentina and the Accademia degli Alterati as the social context for both musical innovation and rhetorical actio, allowed for intellectual and artistic exchange. Two aspects proved to be important in this case, namely the social context and the interdisciplinary engagement of rhetorical actio. The fresh perspective allowed to highlight new ways that connect the early modern musical practice to the pursuit of knowledge. In this case study, the four central processes in the pursuit of knowledge (gathering, analysing, employing and disseminating), and the hypothetical site of knowledge of the Accademia degli Alterati and the Camerata Fiorentina as a locus for innovation, proved to be powerful tools to analyse the emergence of opera. Vincenzo Galilei and the Camerata Fiorentina exemplified the need for the relatively new perspective of the history of knowledge. This perspective allowed to contextualise the musical development as part of the pursuit of knowledge in sixteenth-century Florence. ![]() The aim of this research was to investigate the emergence of opera in the second half of the sixteenth century from the perspective of the history of knowledge. ![]()
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